Contents

• 1. Introduction
• 2. Modeling change with panel data
• Change-score models and the role of lagged endogenous variables
• Estimation of the static-score model
• Alternative lag specifications
• Problems in the estimation of panel models
• 3. Models of reciprocal causation
• Cross-lagged effects models
• Synchronous effects models
• Cross-lagged and synchronous effects models
• 4. Measurement error models
• Basic concepts
• Single-indicator models
• Multiple-indicator models
• 5. Spurious association and autocorrelated disturbances
• Common factor models
• Unmeasured variable models
• 6. Concluding note on causal inference in panel analysis